There are, however, numerous ways in which to establish someone’s ethnic identity. They are not [...]]]> So you have established that your ancestors lived on Latvian territory. But what were their ethnic origins? Latvia has been a multi-ethnic territory for centuries, so the distinctions between ethnic groups might not always be so clear in the old records.

There are, however, numerous ways in which to establish someone’s ethnic identity. They are not foolproof, but simply a guideline that can help to unravel some of these mysteries.

Why is ethnicity important? Each ethnic group has its own unique traditions and culture. Knowing about these traditions and cultures helps us paint a clearer picture of our ancestors’ lives, the stories they told, the songs they sang and the languages they spoke.

Surname – The peasantry – mostly consisting of ethnic Latvians – only acquired surnames in the nineteenth century. They were encouraged to choose names that reflected this ethnic origin, though many did not comply and chose German, Polish or Russian names instead. But if they did select a Latvian name, the chances are extremely good that they were ethnic Latvians. Remember, Latvian was considered a peasant dialect in this time period, so anyone who was not Latvian would be unlikely to choose a Latvian name. German, Russian or Polish names, however, since they carried with them the appearance of prestige and a higher social class, were adopted by many different groups that were not ethnic Germans, Russians or Poles, including, but not limited to, Latvians, Estonians and Roma. Jewish surnames can also be of Slavic or Germanic origins, depending on a family’s particular history – sometimes they could come from Germanic origins via Yiddish centuries before surnames were prevalent among the Latvian peasantry, in other cases, they could have been assigned around the same time that Latvian peasants acquired surnames.

Census – Census records – from 1897, 1935 and 1941 – all have a column for ethnicity. However, as census records are derivative sources, they could have their inaccuracies, particularly depending on such things as who answered the census for the household, any biases on the part of the recordkeepers (for example, on the 1897 All-Russia Census, it was common for Belarusians and Ukrainians to be written down as “White Russians” and “Little Russians”, thus subgroups of the main Russian group, rather than as separate ethnicities within a wider Slavic group), and the political climate (the 1941 Census was conducted while Latvia was under Nazi occupation).

Congregation – So your ancestor from Latvian territory has a German, Russian or Polish name, but you believe that they are an ethnic Latvian? Look at religious records. Not the language of the records themselves, but the congregation your ancestor is found in. Many Lutheran parishes had separate German and Latvian congregations, and the records were often kept separate as well. If your ancestor was baptized in the German congregation, it is likely that at least one of their parents was an ethnic German. But here there is the caution regarding upward mobility – if a Latvian was seeking to improve his social status further – maybe he was already favoured by a local baron or had had the opportunity to study – he may have switched to the German congregation in an effort to maintain his higher status. In the nineteenth century, there was a movement against this Germanization by the Young Latvians.

Religion – Generally speaking, ethnic Latvians and ethnic Germans were Lutherans. Sometimes they were Catholics, particularly in Latgale. Some Latvians joined the Russian Orthodox church, or smaller denominations such as Baptist or Reformed churches. It is also important to read baptism entries of children fully – they will typically tell the religion of both parents. This additional information in baptism entries can also lead to surprising discoveries – I found an Anglican British man who settled in Sece parish in the 1870s who baptized his children into his local wife’s Lutheran church.

Class – Class is a big marker, particularly prior to the twentieth century. Ethnic Latvians were predominantly peasant farmers, with some working in trades. The nobility was primarily German, with some Russian and Polish nobles as well. I have yet to hear of any ethnic Latvian baron or large landowner, but it is not outside the realm of possibility. Depending on the time period, administrators would have been German, Russian or Polish. As time passed, Latvians began to move into other positions as well, but, for the most part, this would have only come after emancipation from serfdom.

Location – Where in Latvia did your ancestors live? Vidzeme and Kurzeme, the northern and western provinces of Latvia, had (and still have) the highest percentages of ethnic Latvians. Zemgale (the southern province) also had high numbers of ethnic Latvians – particularly in the west – but as you head east and into Latgale (the eastern province), percentages of Russians, Belarusians and Poles increase. Rural areas were predominantly Latvian, with the exception of the southeast, where there were larger numbers of Belarusians, Russians and Poles. Urban areas were very mixed. Latvians had pluralities in most cities at the end of the nineteenth century (except for in the southeast), but majority populations only in the north in cities such as Cēsis, Limbaži and Valmiera. In the southeast, cities were predominantly Jewish and Polish. In this same time period, there were two rural pockets that were predominantly German, one south of Ērgļi in central Latvia, the other in Kurzeme north of Saldus. The rural areas southeast of Ludza and west of Rēzekne in the east were predominantly Belarusian. Majority Russian rural parishes were found west of Rēzekne and east of Daugavpils.[1]

I hope that these tips can help you narrow down your family’s background and learn more about their traditions. Anomalies do occur, so nothing can be certain, but as a general guideline, these should help your research.

Any other tips? Share in comments!

[1]Population distributions taken from Latvijas Vēstures Atlants, ed. Jānis Turlajs, 1998, p. 28 – “National population at the end of the 19th century”.

While not all obeyed this directive and chose German names (or had German names assigned to them [...]]]> When Latvian peasants were choosing surnames after emancipation from serfdom, they were strongly encouraged by the German and Russian rulers to choose names in their own language, and were forbidden to choose names of local nobles or famous people.

While not all obeyed this directive and chose German names (or had German names assigned to them by clerks), many did choose names from the Latvian language. Predictably, most of these names were drawn from elements important to the everyday life of peasants.

Which brings us to today’s Surname Saturday – Latvian surnames that have roots in food or food production! I’m going to tell a story of preparing dinner. Surnames I’ve come across appear in bold, the English translation and in what parish records I’ve seen them in brackets.

Before you can even start to prepare dinner, unless you are a Mednieks (hunter; Liepāja) or a Zvejnieks (fisherman; Skulte, Sece), you will need to pay a visit to the Miesnieks (butcher; Brenguļi). You should also thank the Arājs (ploughman; Sece) and Gaitnieks (farmhand; Lugaži) for the work they’ve done in the fields. And, of course, the Pavārs (cook; Kastrāne, Limbaži, Suntaži)!

Protein is important. At the moment, on the menu you will find Zaķis (rabbit; Limbaži, Kastrāne, Vidriži) and Līdaka (pike; Limbaži, Smiltene). I’m not sure how common Lasis (salmon; Bīriņi) was in Latvia in the nineteenth century, but you will find it on today’s menu. If you are a vegetarian, you will need to settle for an Oliņa (diminutive of egg; Lēdurga).

No meal is complete without grains. But what grain? You can have auzas (singular Auza, diminutive Auziņš – oats; Straupe, Limbaži, Suntaži), mieži (singular Miezis, diminutive Miezītis – barley; Limbaži, Suntaži, Vidriži) or rudzi (singular Rudzis, diminutive Rudzītis – rye; Lēdurga, Limbaži, Nabe, Sidgunda). From these grains we can make a Maizīte (diminutive of bread, refers to sandwich in modern Latvian; Sece, Lēdurga) or a Sausiņš (rusk; Limbaži).

You can’t forget the vegetables! Before the arrival of the Kartupelis (potato; Ikšķile) in Europe, the Rācenis (turnip; Limbaži, Rauna) was a staple peasant food. These can be supplemented with kāposti (singular Kāposts – cabbage; Aloja), sēnes (singular Sēne – mushroom; Trikāta) and zirņi (singular Zirnis – pea; Mangaļi). Maybe later you can also have some other saknes (singular Sakne – vegetable; Dunte).

Perhaps this all seems quite bland. Not to worry – spices to the rescue! Would you prefer Kanēlis (cinnamon; Limbaži), or perhaps Ķimenes (caraway; Skulte, Vidriži)? Or maybe just Ķiploks (garlic; Smiltene) would be to your taste?

What would dinner be without dessert? You could have an Auglis (fruit; Sece) like an Ābols (apple; Limbaži) or a Plūme (plum; Kastrāne, Lēdurga, Limbaži, Nabe). Other than just Cukurs (sugar; Trikāta, Vijciems), I’m afraid we’re limited in other saldumi (singular Saldums – sweet treat; Limbaži) at the moment.

To drink, unless you are a Vīndzērājs (wine drinker; Rīga), you will be drinking Ūdens (water; Lugaži) today.

When you’ve finished your meal, be sure to push in your Krēsliņš (diminutive of chair; Rauna) when you leave the Galdiņš (diminutive of table; Ludza).

I hope you enjoyed your time in this Latvian peasant kitchen, and I hope to see you again next Saturday when we talk about the local wildlife!

Most Latvian religious records are not in Latvian. They are usually in [...]]]> Language can be one of the biggest obstacles to tracing Latvian genealogy. However, it is not an insurmountable one. Most records follow specific patterns, and once you know what to look for in the patterns, you can easily find what you are looking for.

Most Latvian religious records are not in Latvian. They are usually in German or Russian. I have seen some old church records in Latvian, but these are generally quite rare. Most religous records after 1891 will be in Russian, since it was at that time the czar handed down a decree that all vital records should be recorded in Russian. Not all congregations followed this, however, and some records remain in German, which was the most common language in the records prior to this time. However, some denominations already kept records in Russian before 1891, namely Orthodox and Old Believer congregations. Jewish records are often kept in two languages, one being Yiddish and the other German or Russian, depending on time period and location.

The formats for records vary widely, therefore it is important to be able to recognize the German or Russian words for the types of entries you are looking for. Below is a list of keywords, in English, Latvian, German and Russian of words commonly appearing in records (brackets show words as they appear in the records in old Russian orthography). Keep in mind that the endings may change, since Latvian, German and Russian all have a noun case system.

• Births – Dzimušie – Geborene – Рождений (Рожденныхъ)
• Baptisms – Kristītie – Getaufte – Крещений (Крещенныхъ)
• Marriages – Laulātie – Getraute – Браки (Бракъ)
• Deaths – Mirušie – Verstorbene – Умершие (Умершіе)
• Given name/Surname – Vārds/Uzvārds – Name/Familienname – Имя/Фамилия (Имя/Фамилия)
• Child – Bērns – Kind – Ребёнок (Ребёнок)
• Father/Mother – Tēvs/Māte – Vater/Mutter – Отец/Мать (Отец/Мать)
• Godparents – Krustvecāki – Taufpaten – Крёстнии (Восприёмники)
• Day – Diena – Tag – День (День)
• Month – Mēness – Monat – Месяц (Мѣсацъ)
• Year – Gads – Jahr – Год (Годъ)

If there are any other words you’d like to know, just ask!

A right mess, that’s what.

As mentioned before, up until the 1890s most church books in Latvia were written in German. German is, as its name implies, a Germanic language. The Germanic language family also includes English, Dutch and Danish, and is [...]]]> What happens when you apply the orthography of one language to a fairly unrelated language?

A right mess, that’s what.

As mentioned before, up until the 1890s most church books in Latvia were written in German. German is, as its name implies, a Germanic language. The Germanic language family also includes English, Dutch and Danish, and is a part of the larger Indo-European family.

Meanwhile, Latvian is a Baltic language, closely related only to Lithuanian. Sometimes they are added to the Slavic languages to form a larger Balto-Slavic language family, which would also include languages such as Russian and Polish. Balto-Slavic languages are also Indo-European in origin.

This means that German orthography was not particularly suited to writing Latvian words. To a Latvian speaker, the words will often be familiar, but to a beginner who does not speak Latvian, tracking a surname through the changes can be quite confusing. I speak Latvian and even I am puzzled sometimes. For further confusion, since spelling was not standardized, even spellings within one orthography can vary, depending on the scribe in question (or sometimes even the same scribe!).

I have found a good web resource that addresses spelling changes from German orthography to Latvian orthography, here at ROOTS=SAKNES. This website also provides a good comprehensive overview of Latvian history as it pertains to genealogical searches. It is the best Latvian research resource that I have found in English, however, it does not appear to have been updated in the past four years, and the mailing list appears to be defunct (upon trying to subscribe, I got an “undeliverable” response from the mail server).

Moving on now to Russian orthography. Russian orthography is more suited to writing Latvian than German orthography is, since there are numerous similar sounds. The obstacle here for English-speaking researchers is the alphabet – Russian is written in the Cyrillic alphabet, which is quite different from the Latin alphabet used for writing English, German and Latvian. To make matters even more complicated, Russian handwriting differs considerably from typed Russian, which leads to many letters looking identical. Russian has also undergone numerous changes in orthography, which means that some letters appearing in old documents (such as the letter ѣ) have been eliminated in modern Russian. This website can lead you through the basics of modern Russian handwriting.

Now to provide an example of these changes, utilizing the name I provided in my last post – Wahzeet, Ваціэтъ and Vācietis. Vācietis is not a particularly common Latvian surname, but it is still in use in Latvia today. In English, it would translate to “German” (that is, a German person).

Prior to the standardization of the Latvian alphabet, it was common for names to be given in a more familiar form, rather than in the standardized nominative case of a word (Latvian, like other Balto-Slavic languages, has a grammatical case system for nouns). So in Latvian orthography, in the familiar form, it could have been “Vāciet” or “Vāciets”.

The German form Wahzeet will immediately be made more familiar to Latvian eyes by changing the “z” to “c” (in Latvian, “c” makes a “ts” sound, as in “tsar”). Take caution with such a substitution however, since sometimes a “z” is just a “z” (and sometimes, a “z” in Latvian would be written as a “s” in German!).

To know whether a “z” is “c” or “z” in Latvian, a parallel Russian text can come in very useful (this will be seen in some church books after Russian-language registration was introduced – names would be recorded in both Russian and German). Here, the “ц” in the Russian version tells you that it will be a Latvian “c”. Note also the obsolete Russian letter “і”, represented by “и” in modern Russian. The final “ъ” would also probably be eliminated in modern Russian.

Some further examples (German->Russian->Latvian):

• Behrsin->Берзин->Bērziņš

• Swaigsne->Звайгзне->Zvaigzne
• Jehkabsohn->Екабсонъ->Jēkabsons
• Pawassar->Павассаръ->Pavasars

Do you have a Latvian family name you would like to see in its German or Russian form? I may be able to help. However, I have not come across all names in records I have looked at, so I may only be able to provide an educated guess.

Good news! The block may not be as big as you think. You may not need to know any Latvian at [...]]]> If in the course of your research you have come across a Latvian ancestor, and you do not speak Latvian, you may feel like you have hit a big stumbling block to continuing your research.

Good news! The block may not be as big as you think. You may not need to know any Latvian at all to continue your research. Of course, as a speaker of Latvian, I do encourage people to learn it, especially those with Latvian ancestry. However, I do recognize that due to various constraints, this may not always be possible.

Depending on the time period you have for your ancestor, the records you will need to consult for further information may be in completely different languages.

Latvia only became an independent country in 1918. Immediately prior to this date, Latvia was a part of the Russian Empire, and, in centuries past, was held by the Germans, Swedes and Poles as well. This means that the bulk of historical records relevant for Latvian research are not in Latvian, but rather these languages – most commonly Russian and German.

German crusaders entered Latvia in the late 1100s, with the mission to convert the pagan Balts to Christianity. They were followed also by German traders and nobles, who set up vast manorial estates, and the local population became serfs on these estates, only being released from serfdom in the 1800s.

While the leadership of the territory changed hands between the Germans, Swedes, Poles and Russians, the local manor lords and ladies remained German right up to independence in the twentieth century. Consequently, a major source of Latvian genealogical records – church books – were written almost exclusively in German up until the 1890s, when Czar Alexander III introduced Russification measures across the Russian Empire, which included requiring local officials to keep records in Russian.

Most Latvian church books are available online, at the Latvian State Historical Archives project “Raduraksti”. They are arranged by religion and by parish, with the typical time period covered by Lutheran and Catholic records being 1835-1905. Lutheranism and Catholicism were the dominant religions in Latvia at the time, with smaller numbers of Jews, Baptists, Orthodox and Old Believers. A number of records for these faiths are also available on the “Raduraksti” website.

The church books are available in image format only – currently there is no index. This means that if you do not know where in Latvia your ancestor was from, you will not be able to jump straight into these records. Even if you do not know exactly where your ancestor was from, it might still be possible to figure it out, based on later records as well as surnames.

I studied Russian in university, so my time with the Russian records is easier. I am only beginning to learn German, however, so I am still puzzling my way through the different styles of handwriting to reach the information found within.

But it is not an impossible obstacle. My German will improve. My Russian already has. Proficiency, at least for genealogical purposes, will come.

Next post: What do the names Wahzeet, Ваціэтъ and Vācietis have in common? They are actually the same name – in three different orthographies. Why it is important to know different orthographies so that it is possible to trace a name through different languages.